Release:
2024. Vol. 10. № 1 (37)About the authors:
Galina A. Nelaeva, Cand. Sci. (Polit.), Associate Professor, Department of Modern History and International Relations, Institute of History and Political Science, Tyumen State University; nelaeva@yahoo.comAbstract:
The problem of destruction and looting of cultural heritage has long been a serious problem for the international community. Despite a significant number of various multilateral agreements, resolutions and recommendations of international organizations, the methods and means of combating such crimes remain insufficient. This is partly due to the fact that the trade in cultural property is a lucrative business, and countries are in no hurry to introduce strict controls on the movement of artifacts. Countries from which heritage is extracted and sold on the black market are asking for the return of stolen property. This article examines the problem of the return or restitution of cultural heritage to countries of origin on the example of the Middle East region. The study aims to trace the public discourse about the return of stolen artifacts to countries such as Iraq, Syria, Libya, and Yemen from Western Europe and the United States. Using quantitative and qualitative content analysis to study documents, media discourse and official statements, we examine how the issue of restitution and return of heritage, often located in European and American museums, is presented in the public sphere of the countries studied. The results show that the process of “decolonization” of European museums is slow and difficult, since the public consciousness still retains the image of the “other”: a weak, dependent, conflict-ridden, unstable Middle East, unable to take care of its own heritage.Keywords:
References:
Al Jazeera. (2022, Nov. 30). ‘Act of plunder’: Egyptians want the Rosetta Stone back. Retrieved Sep. 8, 2023, from https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/11/30/after-220-years-egypt-demands-the-return-of-the-rosetta-st...
Africa Museum Collections. Cultural Anthropology and History. (n.d.). Retrieved Sep. 8, 2023, from https://www.africamuseum.be/en/research/collections_libraries/human_sciences/collections
Agerholm, H. (2016, Dec. 4). Stolen artifacts from Palmyra and Yemen seized in Geneva. The Independent. Retrieved Oct. 6, 2023, from https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/stolen-artifacts-palmyra-yemen-geneva-enesco-switzer...
Bailey, M. (2003, May 1). International outrage as Iraq’s National Museum is sacked by civilians. The Art Newspaper. Retrieved Sep. 23, 2023, from https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2003/05/01/international-outrage-as-iraqs-national-museum-is-sacked-...
Barker, C. (2018, Apr. 9). Fifteen years after looting, thousands of artefacts are still missing from Iraq’s national museum. The Conversation. Retrieved Sep. 8, 2023, from https://theconversation.com/fifteen-years-after-looting-thousands-of-artefacts-are-still-missing-fro...
Bator, P. M. (1982). An Essay on the International Trade in Art. Stanford Law Review, (34), 275–384.
Bogdanos, M. (2005). The Casualties of War: The Truth about the Iraq Museum. American Journal of Archaeology, (109), 477–526. Retrieved Sep. 18, 2023, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40026122
Bowley, G., & Mashberg, T. (2023, Feb. 21). Looted Artifacts, Returned to Yemen, Will Go to the Smithsonian, for Now. The New York Times. Retrieved Sep. 28, 2023 from https://www.nytimes.com/2023/02/21/arts/design/yemen-looted-artifacts-smithsonian.html
Al Jazeera. (2018, Aug. 9). British Museum to hand over looted antiquities to Iraqi embassy. Retrieved Oct. 6, 2023, from https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2018/8/9/british-
museum-to-hand-over-looted-antiquities-to-iraqi-embassy
Burack, E. (2023, Sep. 20). Is 2023 the Year Looted Art Returns Home? Town & Country. Retrieved Sep. 8, 2023, from https://www.townandcountrymag.com/leisure/arts-and-culture/a42660309/repatriated-artwork-timeline-20...
Burgess, K. (2015, Jun. 5). British Museum guarding antiquity looted in Syria. The Times. Retrieved Sep. 15, 2023, from https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/british-museum-guarding-antiquity-looted-in-syria-bq92pnzvq2f
UNESCO. (n.d.). Cases of returns and restitutions under the aegis of the ICPRCP. Retrieved Sep. 13, 2023 from https://en.unesco.org/fighttrafficking/Cases_of_Return_and_Restitution_ICPRCP
UNESCO. (1970, Nov. 14). Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property. Retrieved Sep. 10, 2023, from https://www.unesco.org/en/legal-affairs/convention-means-prohibiting-and-preventing-illicit-import-e...
INTERPOL. (2021, Oct. 18). Cultural property crime thrives throughout pandemic says new INTERPOL survey. Retrieved Sep. 8, 2023 from https://www.interpol.int/en/News-and-Events/News/2021/Cultural-property-crime-thrives-throughout-pan...
Cunliffe, E., Muhesen, N., & Lostal, M. (2016). The Destruction of Cultural Property in the Syrian Conflict: Legal Implications and Obligations. International Journal of Cultural Property, (23), 1–31.
Dib, A., & Izquierdo, M. A. R. (2021). Terrorism and the Loss of Cultural Heritage: The Case of ISIS in Iraq and Syria. In O. Niglio, & E. Y. J. Lee (Eds.), Transcultural Diplomacy and International Law in Heritage Conservation (pp. 377–393). Singapore Springer.
Doppelhofer, C. (2016). Will Palmyra rise again? — War Crimes against Cultural Heritage and Post-war Reconstruction. UN Human Rights. Office of the High Commissioner. Retrieved Sep. 8, 2023, from https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/CulturalRights/DestructionHeritage/NGOS/C...
Floyd, T. (2023, Feb. 21). Smithsonian to house stolen Yemeni artifacts until they can be returned. The Washington Post. Retrieved Sep. 8, 2023, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/arts-entertainment/2023/02/21/smithsonian-yemen-artifacts-sackler/
Forrest, A. (2019, Jul. 8). British Museum to return precious artefacts looted from Iraq and Afghanistan. The Independent. Retrieved Sep. 8, 2023, from https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/british-museum-afghanistan-iraq-buddhist-heads-mesop...
Gottlieb, M., & Meier, B. (2003, May 1). Aftereffects: the plunder; of 2,000 treasures stolen in Gulf War of 1991, only 12 have been recovered. The New York Times. Retrieved Sep. 11, 2023, from https://www.nytimes.com/2003/05/01/world/aftereffects-plunder-2000-treasures-stolen-gulf-war-1991-on...
Holland, O. (2021, Aug. 5). US returns over 17,000 looted artifacts to Iraq CNN. Retrieved Oct. 1, 2023, from https://edition.cnn.com/style/article/iraq-us-artifacts-repatriation/index.html#:~:text=The%20US%20h...
Hunt, T. (2019, Jun. 29). Should museums return their colonial artefacts? The Guardian. Retrieved Sep. 8, 2023, from https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2019/jun/29/should-museums-return-their-colonial-artefacts
King, E. (2017). What framing analysis can teach us about history textbooks, peace, and conflict: the case of Rwanda. In M. J. Bellino et al. (Eds.), Constructing Memory: Education, Identity, and Conflict (pp. 23–48). Sense Publishers.
Ministère de la Culture. (2023). La loi du 22 juillet 2023 sur la restitution des biens culturels spoliés dans le contexte des persécutions antisémites perpétrées entre 1933 et 1945 a été publiée au Journal official. Retrieved Sep. 8, 2023, from https://www.culture.gouv.fr/Nous-connaitre/Organisation-du-ministere/Le-secretariat-general/Mission-...
Labadie, C. (2021). Decolonizing collections: a legal perspective on the restitution of cultural artifacts. ICOFOM Study Series [En ligne], (49–2). Retrieved Sep. 28, 2023, from https://doi.org/10.4000/iss.3784
Le Blanc, P. (2021, Jul. 27). Hobby Lobby ordered to forfeit ancient artifact bought for $1.6 million in 2014. CNN. Retrieved Sep. 12, 2023, from https://edition.cnn.com/2021/07/27/politics/epic-of-gilgamesh-hobby-lobby/index.html
Reuters. (2023, Jan. 23). Lebanese museum returns ancient artifacts to Syria Reuters. Retrieved Sep. 8, 2023, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zDVh4o-rBYM&ab_channel=Reuters
Lostal, M., Hausler, K., & Bongard, P. (2017). Armed Non-State Actors and Cultural Heritage in Armed Conflict. International Journal of Cultural Property, (24), 407–427.
Matthews, R., & Rasheed, Q. H. (2020). Heritage and cultural healing: Iraq in a post-Daesh era. International Journal of Heritage Studies, (26), 120–141.
McAndrew, C. (2022). The Art Market. An Art Basel & UBS Report. Retrieved Sep. 11, 2023, from https://d2u3kfwd92fzu7.cloudfront.net/Art%20Market%202022.pdf
Moniz Bandeira, L.A. (2017). The Second Cold War. Geopolitics and the Strategic Dimensions of the USA. Springer.
Monza, F., Ciliberti, R., Anastasio, R., & Licata, M. (2019). Museums and human remains: Ethical issues in curating and displaying. Éthique & Santé, (16), 133–136.
Mungai, C. (2018, Dec. 3). Who are Western museums guarding African artefacts from? Al Jazeera. Retrieved Sep. 2, 2023, from https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2018/12/3/who-are-western-museums-guarding-african-artefacts-from
Potter, L. (2023, May 15). Ethical considerations for human remains. The University of Utah Research. Retrieved Sep. 8, 2023, from https://attheu.utah.edu/facultystaff/ethical-considerations-for-human-remains
Rankin, J. (2022, Feb. 10). ‘Justice can triumph’: painting looted by Nazis returned to owners after 80 years. The Guardian. Retrieved Sep. 28, 2023, from https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2022/feb/10/justice-can-triumph-painting-looted-by-nazis-re...
Sarr, F., & Savoy, B. (2018, Nov.). Rapport sur la restitution du patrimoine culturel africain. Vers une nouvelle éthique relationnelle. Retrieved Sep. 8, 2023, from https://medias.vie-publique.fr/data_storage_s3/rapport/pdf/194000291.pdf
Schmidt-Colinet, A. (2020). Recent Destructions in Palmyra, Syria: Looting and Illegal Antiquities Trade. Recent Destructions in Palmyra, Syria: Looting and Illegal Antiquities Trade. In D. Hadjimitsis, et al. Remote Sensing for Archaeology and Cultural Landscapes (pp. 19–28). Springer.
Sigal, S. (2018, Mar. 19). It’s Disturbingly Easy to Buy Iraq’s Archeological Treasures. The Atlantic. Retrieved Sep. 18, 2023, from https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2018/03/iraq-war-archeology-invasion/555200/
Snowball, J., Nwauche, E. S., & Collins, A. (2021). Examining restitution and repatriation options for cultural artefacts: an empirical enquiry in South Africa. International Journal of Cultural Property, (28), 531–545.
Stantis, C., de la Cova, C., Lippert, D. et al. (2023). Biological anthropology must reassess museum collections for a more ethical future. Nature Ecology & Evolution, (7), 786–789.
Cultural Property News. (2023, Feb. 24). State Dept Renews Blockade on Libyan Art, Ignoring Law and Facts. Cultural Property News. Retrieved Sep. 8, 2023, from https://culturalpropertynews.org/state-dept-renews-blockade-on-libyan-art-ignoring-law-and-facts
INTERPOL. (n.d.). Stolen Works of Art Database. Retrieved Sep. 8, 2023, from https://www.interpol.int/en/Crimes/Cultural-heritage-crime/Stolen-Works-of-Art-Database
Stroobants, J.-P. (2021, Aug. 11). La Belgique fait un pas vers la restitution de biens culturels au Congo. Le Monde. Retrieved Sep. 8, 2023, from https://www.lemonde.fr/culture/article/2021/08/11/la-belgique-fait-un-pas-vers-la-restitution-de-bie...
The Hermitage has helped to return a stone architrave to Syria from the UK (2023, Sep. 19). The Hermitage News. https://www.hermitagemuseum.org/wps/portal/hermitage/news/news-item/news/2023/news_240_23?lng=en&...
The Thieves of Baghdad (2007, Sep. 17). Al Jazeera Arabic. Retrieved Sep. 28, 2023, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4Q_0p1L_YU&ab_channel=AlJazeeraArabic%D9%82%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%...
Thurlow, M. D. (2005). Protecting Cultural Property in Iraq: How American Military Policy Comports with International Law. Yale Human Rights and Development Journal, (8), 175–185. Retrieved Sep. 9, 2023, from https://paperity.org/p/83158447/protecting-cultural-property-in-iraq-how-american-military-policy-co...
Torrao, M. M. (2020, Jun. 26). Restitution of Artifacts: A Colonial Obligation? The Cambridge Global Affair. Retrieved Sep. 8, 2023, from https://www.thecambridgeglobalaffair.co.uk/our-articles/restitution-of-cultural-artifacts
Turku, H. (2018). The Destruction of Cultural Property as a Weapon of War. ISIS in Syria and Iraq. Palgrave Macmillan.
Twaij, A. (2021, Nov. 4). When Will the West Truly Decolonize Its Museums? Foreign Policy. Retrieved Sep. 8, 2023, from https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/11/04/decolonize-museums-us-iraq-artifacts-repatriation-nigeria-benin...
Al-Monitor. (2020, Oct. 23). UK to return 5,000 ancient artifacts to Iraq. Al-Monitor. Retrieved Sep. 28, 2023, from https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2020/10/iraq-artifacts-kadhimi-british-government-return-looted...
UNESCO. (2017, Apr. 28). UNESCO Director-General welcomes the liberation of Hatra and will send Emergency Assessment mission “as soon as possible.” Retrieved Sep. 8, 2023, from https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1658/
UNESCO. (2017, Nov. 30). UN Security Council Highlights the Role of Cultural Heritage for Peace and Security. Retrieved Oct. 8, 2023, from https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/un-security-council-highlights-role-cultural-heritage-peace-and-s...
UNIDROIT. (1995, Jun. 24). UNIDROIT Convention on the International Return of Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects. Retrieved Sep. 8, 2023, from https://www.unidroit.org/instruments/cultural-property/1995-convention
U.S. Office of Palestinian Affairs. (2023, Jan. 5). United States Repatriates Cultural Antiquity to Palestinian Authority. Retrieved Sep. 8, 2023, from https://palestinianaffairs.state.gov/united-states-repatriates-cultural-antiquity-to-palestinian-aut...
US Immigration and Customs Enforcement. (2021, Sep. 24). US returns stolen ancient artifacts to Iraq in repatriation ceremony. Retrieved Sep. 8, 2023, from https://www.ice.gov/news/releases/us-returns-stolen-ancient-artifacts-iraq-repatriation-ceremony
van Dijk, T. A. (2000). Ideology and Discourse: A Multidisciplinary Introduction. SAGE Publications.
Vellut, J.-L. (2017). Le Congo dans les esthétiques de l’Occident, l’Occident dans les esthétiques du Congo. In J. Vellut. Congo: Ambitions et désenchantements 1880–1960 (pp. 287–308). Karthala.
Voon, C. (2022, Dec. 16). US officials return antiquities looted from Iraq Museum in 2003. The Art Newspaper. Retrieved Sep. 28, 2023, from https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2022/12/16/antiquities-looted-iraq-museum-returned-seals
Weiss, E. (2022, Aug. 17). Repatriation of artefacts: a recipe for disaster. History Reclaimed. Retrieved Sep. 22, 2023, from https://historyreclaimed.co.uk/repatriation-of-artefacts-a-recipe-for-disaster
Arab News. (2022, Jun. 17). Yemen urges European countries to ban agencies auctioning Yemeni antiquities. Arab News. Retrieved 6 Oct. 2023, from https://www.arabnews.com/node/2105321/middle-east
Iraqi News HD. (2021, Jul. 29) التصريح الصحفي الخاص باسترداد الاثار العراقية من الولايات المتحدة الامريكية [Video]. YouTube. Retrieved 6 Oct., 2023 from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i9Fi1L4lc5k
FRANCE 24 Arabic. (2018, May 3) الولايات المتحدة تعيد آلاف القطع الأثرية المهربة للعراق [Video]. YouTube. Retrieved 6 Oct., 2023 from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YldBuhf1vrE
